Introduction
It is an easy task to reflect back upon an
experience that was as positive as this was. It
began with apprehension, the first class I had
taken in many years, uncertainty about the
qualities of the materials and some indecision as
to wanting to dedicate the amount of time
necessary to make the process meaningful. It is
ending with a desire to continue. This has been a
rewarding experience and has been a benefit to my
role as teacher.
This was written by a 58-year old male student on
an end-of-course evaluation of an online graduate
course.
Literature Review
Information from the U.S. Census Bureau (2008)
reveals that the overall population in the United
States is aging, and their projections show that
in the next few decades the fastest growing
segment of the population will be older adults.
This holds true for the workforce as well, with
the number of workers over the age of 55
increasing at a higher rate than any other age
group (Alley & Crimmins, 2007). Additionally, we
know that our economy and workforce demand
life-long learners who continually update and
upgrade skills (Shen, Pitt-Catsouphes, & Smyer,
2007), and that late-career workers value
workplace lifelong learning (Fredericksen, 2006).
Despite the emergence of the “late-career
student,” there is scant research on the
educational needs and performance of students ages
50-65 in higher education (Paulson & Boeke, 2006).
Interestingly, the American Council on Education
recently published research results entitled
Reinvesting in the Third Age that identified
the need for higher education to focus more on
individuals aged 50 and older (Lakin, Mullane, &
Robinson, 2007 & 2008). Recommendations from this
focus group research suggested that older adults
prefer education “skill-ettes” (i.e., short,
specialized instruction focused on a particular
need) and colleges should learn more about the
interests and needs of this age group. This is
consistent with the finding that late-career
workers possessed positive attitudes toward
learning, but only if it was relevant and helped
them do their jobs better (Fuller & Unwin, 2006).
To compound matters, higher education is
experiencing a shift from traditional face-to-face
instruction to fully online courses (Grant &
Thornton, 2007; Rose, 2009). Online enrollment
continues to rise rapidly with over 20 percent of
students taking online courses (Allen & Seaman,
2008). It is expected that this shift in learning
modalities will become even more prevalent in the
next decade, so to maintain credentials and engage
in life-long learning, late-career adults will
have little choice but to attempt online
coursework. This online interaction is second
nature for digital natives (i.e., those who grew
up with computer technology), but it requires new
learning for digital immigrants (Prensky, 2001).
Additionally, this shift in instructional formats
implies that instructors must follow the process
of interaction design to create an effective
environment for diverse learners in their online
coursework (Preece, Rogers & Sharp, 2002; Tallent-Runnels,
Thomas, Lan, Cooper, Ahern, T.C., Shaw, et al.,
2006). To identify these learning needs,
instructors will need to conduct an analysis of
necessary technology support and assignment
options that match the learning styles of their
course participants.
While late-career adults are becoming more
technologically savvy, these digital immigrants
are still reluctant to take online coursework. In
2007, AARP reported that most adults (69%) aged 50
to 64 used the Internet; however, they rarely
participated in formalized online learning. When
asked why they did not participate in online
coursework, older adults most often cited poor
computer skills and loss of face-to-face
connections as the primary reasons (Lakin et al.,
2008). Contrary to the research, this study found
that more than a third of all students in the
online graduate course Introduction to
Transition Education and Services were
late-career adults. The characteristics of
the students aged 50 to 65 and their learning
outcomes from the course are the focus of this
study.
Methods
This study examined the learner characteristics,
academic performance, and satisfaction of
late-career teachers (aged 50-65) in an online
graduate course. Research questions included:
1.
Why did late-career adults choose to take this
online course?
2.
What level of content and technology knowledge did
participants have prior to the online course?
3.
How did late-career adults perform in this online
course?
4.
What level of technology support was necessary to
facilitate the learning of late-career adults in
the online environment?
5.
Were late-career adults satisfied with the online
course content and instructional methods?
Setting and Content
The asynchronous online graduate course,
Introduction to Transition Education & Services
was designed for secondary special educators who
support students with disabilities in high school.
The course was the first in a series of five
online graduate courses, each worth 1 graduate
credit hour (totaling 5 graduate credits) at a
Midwestern research university. Employing a cohort
model, course participants advanced through the
series together, with research-based interaction
design and instructional support components
embedded into each course. These included: (a) a
syllabus that outlined all assignments,
expectations, and due dates; (b) detailed
technical assistance instructions with screen
shots; (c) structured discussions with a rubric
posted on the course website; (d) a forum to post
course questions; (e) content and media options
that addressed a variety of learning styles; (f)
student choice in application activities that
related the content to their teaching; and (g) a
reflection and evaluation of the instruction and
learning experience that was used to continually
enhance the instruction and learning environment.
This standardized format enabled learners to
master the learning format during the first course
and then continue to use these newly-acquired
skills in the subsequent courses.
As the first course in the series, Introduction
to Transition Education & Services was offered
during the fall and summer semesters using the
open-source course management platform Moodle
(http://moodle.org/). One week prior to the start
date, students received access to the course and
login instructions so they could explore the
website freely. The course website provided
students the syllabus, grading rubric, information
about technical formats, and all necessary
resources needed for successful completion.
Students submitted all assignments on the course
website and e-mails could be sent to the
instructor through the website or via students’
personal e-mail accounts.
Participants
In 2007-2009, 136 graduate students completed
Introduction to Transition Education & Services.
Two state Departments of Education (one Midwestern
and one
Eastern State) offered limited stipends to high
school special education teachers in their state
who chose to take the course. The course was
customized with state-specific content for the
cohorts in these states. Other participants
enrolled online through the university’s
continuing education division and paid full
tuition. The results of this study reflect the
data from the seven cohorts of students who
participated in Introduction to Transition
Education & Services between 2007 and 2009
(see Table 1).
Table 1: Cohorts
|
Year |
Cohort |
Number of Students |
Percentage of Students aged 50 and above |
|
2007 |
State A, Cohort 1 |
17 |
53% |
|
2008 |
State A, Cohort 2 |
28 |
43% |
|
|
State B, Cohort 1 |
19 |
26% |
|
|
National, Cohort 1 |
13 |
46% |
|
2009 |
State A, Cohort 3 |
24 |
38% |
|
|
State B, Cohort 2 |
23 |
26% |
|
|
National, Cohort 2 |
12 |
33% |
|
Total |
|
136 |
38% (51 students) |
While the program did not intentionally recruit
late-career adults, 51 individuals aged 50-65
chose to enroll. These students were primarily
female (82%) and the majority held a master’s
degree or higher (67%). Job titles of these older
adults included: special education teacher (30),
transition specialist (7), related-services
provider (6), administrator (3), college faculty
(2), community agency consultant (2), and parent
of a child with a disability (1). Most of these
individuals had a long-term career in the field of
education (i.e., 74% for 10+ years, 16% for 7-9
years, 6% for 4-6 years, and 4% for 1-3 years).
Measures
Several quantitative and qualitative measures were
implemented throughout the online graduate course
to collect background information on the
participants and assess their change in knowledge,
attitude, and skill. Furthermore, data were
archived throughout the course to continually
improve the course content and instructional
strategies. These measures are described next.
Demographic Survey.
Prior to starting the course, participants
completed a survey that gathered demographic
information as well as their use of and comfort
with technology. Descriptive and comparative
analyses were used to develop a detailed picture
of the course participants.
Competency Survey.
The competency
survey was based on the transition specialist
indicators identified by the Council for
Exceptional Children’s Division on Career
Development and Transition (2000). Participants
were asked to rate their current aptitude on 40
indicators using a 4-point Likert scale. This
pre-assessment survey enabled course content to be
tailored to meet the needs of the participants.
Case-based Learning Pre/Post Assessment.
During the second week of the course, participants
completed a case-based learning experience on
transition education compliance and best practice
(Morningstar,
Gaumer Erickson, Lattin & Wade, 2008). This
learning experience utilized performance-based
assessments that required participants to apply
their learning to case study examples and their
own students. The pre/post assessment consisted of
a 20-item multiple-choice test on key points of
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(2004).
Satisfaction Survey.
After completing the case-based learning
component, participants were asked to rate their
satisfaction with the interactive content and
online learning in general on a 20-item survey
using a 5-point Likert scale. Questions on this
survey evaluated the time required to complete the
learning experience, comfort with technology,
components of the case-based learning experience
that were most beneficial, and future uses for the
information gained through the learning
experience.
Discussion Forums.
Asynchronous discussions were utilized during two
of the four weeks of the course. A topic in the
first week’s discussion asked participants to
introduce themselves and share their hopes and
concerns related to the course. In addition to the
week-long discussion, the instructor asked
participants to post their questions about course
content in a forum titled, “General Class
Questions.” This enabled the instructor to post
responses that could be accessed by all course
participants. For this study, discussions from
both Week 1 and General Class Questions
were analyzed. These qualitative data were
collected, printed, and coded to reveal themes
related to the comfort with technology and reasons
for pursuing the course. It was then quantified
revealing the number of posts for each course
participant related to the themes.
E-mail Communication.
All e-mail communication with the instructor was
archived. While many students posted their
questions to the General Class Questions
discussion forum, others felt more comfortable
sending an e-mail directly to the instructor.
These e-mails were coded through the same
procedure as described above for the discussion
forums.
Course Reflection.
During the last week of the course, participants
were asked to reflect on the course content.
Specifically they were asked to:
Write a 1-2 page single-spaced reflection on this
online learning experience. Be sure to identify:
(a) information, resources, & activities you found
most useful, (b) how you will use the information
to improve transition services in your school or
community, and (c) suggestions for improving this
online learning experience.
A random sample of twenty-five reflections from
participants aged 50-65 were coded and themed to
identify the course content that they found to be
most beneficial and the application activities
they planned to undertake based on their learning.
Additionally their suggestions for improving the
online experience were analyzed to identify
overarching support needs of this age group.
Quantitative data analyses consisted of
descriptive statistics (i.e., mean and standard
deviation), analysis of variance (ANOVA), and
paired-samples t tests. For all analyses,
the course participants were divided into three
groups (early-career participants aged 21-35;
mid-career participants aged 36-49; and
late-career participants aged 50-65). ANOVA
procedures evaluated the relationship between
factors and the dependent variable (e.g., the
relationship between technology skills and the age
of participants). Because each ANOVA included
variables with more than two levels, they were
followed with pairwise comparisons (i.e., Dunett’s
C if variances were unequal or the least
significant difference (LSD) procedure if
variances were not statistically different). A
paired-sample t test evaluated the
performance across time with two data points
(i.e., case-based instruction pre/post test
performance). The a priori level of 0.05 was set
for all statistical tests (Green & Salkind, 2003).
Results
Throughout the results section, course
participants are compared using three groups.
Those aged 50-65 are termed late-career; aged
36-49 termed mid-career; and aged 21-35 termed
early-career. Because the vast majority of
individuals who participated in the course were
practicing teachers, these employment terms
accurately represent the participants.
Why did late-career adults choose to take this
online course?
When asked why they chose to take the course,
late-career participants cited two main reasons:
1) their interest in the topic and 2) the ability
to earn recertification credits. As one student
noted, “I see the courses as a great opportunity
to learn knowledge and skills that will better
equip my students to meet their post-secondary
goals.” Others described the appealing layout,
“This seemed to be a good way to learn more about
the field in an efficient and timely manner” and
“I like the opportunity to gain new information in
a short period of time. I also like the intensive
focus on one topic at a time.”
What level of content and technology knowledge did
participants have prior to the course?
The subject-area competency was similar across all
age groups. When asked to rate competency on 40
transition-related skills, the mean scores of
late-career participants ranged from 1.90 (not
prepared) to 3.70 (very prepared), with an average
rating of 2.5 (somewhat prepared). This was
similar to their mid- and early-career
counterparts. These means reveal that on average
the course participants, regardless of their age,
felt that they had a moderate level of competency
related to the course content prior to enrolling
in the course (see Table 2).
Thirteen of the 51 late-career adults (25%) had
previously completed an online course. A one-way
analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the
relationship between the number of online courses
taken and age of the student. Error rates on
follow-up analyses were controlled for using the
LSD approach. These analyses found that previous
online course-taking of late-career participants
was significantly lower than the online
course-taking of early-career participants (see
Table 2). The online course-taking for mid-career
participants was between that of early- and
late-career participants and thus not
statistically different from either group.
Late-career adults identified having a moderate
level of technology skills and used technology
moderately in their daily work. While their
technology usage rated at the same level as early-
and mid-career participants, the mid- and
late-career participants felt less experienced
technologically than the early-career participants
(see Figure 1). A one-way analysis of variance was
conducted to evaluate the relationship between
technology skills and age of the student. Because
Levene’s test found that equal variance could not
be assumed, error rates on follow-up analyses were
controlled for using the Dunnett C approach. There
was no statistical difference between the
technology skills of mid- and late-career
participants, but both groups rated their
technology skills statistically lower than the
early-career participants (see Table 2).
Figure 1: Technology Use and Skill
How did late-career adults perform in this online
course?
Late-career adults had high levels of success in
this online course. All (100%) late-career
participants successfully completed the course
requirements. Students receiving graduate credit
were graded on an A-F system with 22 earning an A
(90-100%) and 2 earning a B (80-89%). Other
participants chose to earn Continuing Education
Units (CEUs) with a pass/fail system through which
the remaining 27 participants earned a passing
grade.
The case-base learning pre/post assessment
reinforced the data from the competency survey
that identified similar levels of proficiency in
the subject area for all age groups. On the
pre-test, late-career participants averaged 62%
and increased their scores to 80% on the
post-test. No significant differences were found
in either the pre- or post-test scores when
compared to their younger counterparts. A
paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate
the increase in knowledge from the pre-test to the
post-test. The results for late-career
participants indicated that the mean score on the
post-test (M=80.42, SD=11.56) was significantly
higher than the mean score on the pre-test
(M=61.59, SD=15.57). Results for mid- and
early-career participants also showed significant
increases in knowledge.
What level of technology support was necessary to
facilitate the learning of late-career adults in
the online environment?
The discussion forum and e-mail analyses revealed
that students aged 50-65 ask more
technology-related questions than their younger
counterparts. These questions included asking for
directions regarding posting comments, submitting
assignments, and accessing online resources.
Approximately 40% of the late-career adults asked
a technology-related question. An ANOVA followed
by a Dunett’s C test revealed that late-career
participants asked significantly more
technology-related questions than early-career
participants. Results for mid-career participants
were not significantly different from either of
the other age groups (see Table 2). Other
discussion forum and e-mail analyses did not
reveal significant differences among the age
groups. The themes included asking course content
questions, expanding learning by discussing other
transition-related topics, and providing
technology-related support to peers on the
discussion forums.
Were late-career adults satisfied with the online
course content and instructional methods?
Some variance was identified among the age groups
on the satisfaction survey. Late-career
participants spent more time completing the
case-based learning experience, but they also gave
higher ratings to the following statements: (a)
the case-based learning experience kept my
attention and interest; and (b) the case-based
learning experience could be an important resource
to me in the future. These items on the
satisfaction survey were analyzed using a one-way
analysis of variance. Post-hoc procedures included
the LSD approach when variance was assumed (i.e.,
the case-based learning experience kept my
attention and interest) and the Dunnet’s C
approach when variance could not be assumed (i.e.,
the case-based learning experience could be an
important resource to me in the future). The
analyses revealed that the ratings of mid- and
late-career participants were significantly higher
than those of early-career participants when asked
if the case-based learning experience kept their
attention. On the item that asked if the
case-based learning experience could be an
important resource in the future, the ratings of
late-career participants were significantly higher
than those of early-career participants. The
ratings of mid-career participants fell between
the early- and late-career participants, and thus
were not statistically different from either group
(see Figure 2). Table 2 provides mean scores,
standard deviations, and p-values.
Figure 2: Satisfaction with Case-Based Learning
Experience
Upon completion of the course, participants were
asked to reflect on the course content. These
reflections revealed that participants aged 50-65
highly valued the applicability of the course
content to their jobs and the array of resources
provided throughout the course. All late-career
participants sampled identified the resources
(articles, videos, and website) as contributing to
their learning. Most also felt that the case-based
learning experience (76%) and discussions (68%)
were beneficial. These participants expanded on
the information by identifying ways they would use
their newly-acquired knowledge. Responses included
disseminating information to colleagues and
parents, improving the transition education
processes for students, and advocating for
increased collaboration and additional services in
schools.
“I have been utilizing what I have learned as I
have assisted students in their transition
planning. It has been invaluable, enriching
experience. I have allowed the students to take
more control so they feel more confident.”
“I have printed out the articles and some of the
information from the websites, and have
incorporated them into a note book with
information that can be used in the transition
planning process. I have also notified my
colleagues that I have this information, which
will be located in our special education
office/library. I have also e-mailed a list of
websites to them.”
“I would also like to begin sending out brochures
to parents or guardians before the IEP
[Individualized
Education Program] meetings so that they
come to the meetings better informed.”
“I actually called my Special Education Director
to tell her, ‘This is the first time transition
goals for a student felt individualized and
real!’”
“My e-mail has been busy sending new and seasoned
special educators in the school bits and pieces of
this class.”
“I am already using the information garnered in
this course in my IEP meetings.”
When asked how they would improve the online
learning experience, half of the late-career
adults (50%) reiterated their satisfaction with
the course. Others identified technology, time
commitment, and discussion forum strategies.
“As to areas of improvement, my more traditional
habits of learning cause me to seek out more topic
specific discussion forums.”
“Time commitment to do the activities continues to
be a concern to me, but the information is
invaluable.”
“The lack of programs to view some of the videos
is a bummer but being able to read the text is
some consolation.”
Overall late-career adults came into the course
with moderate levels of prior knowledge and showed
stellar performance on all assignments. They
required higher levels of technology support, but
once they became proficient in the technology
requirements, they found the course content and
format to be highly beneficial and applicable to
their work. This satisfaction was evident in the
enrollment rate of the next course with 94% of the
late-career participants in the Introduction to
Transition course enrolling in the second
online course in the series.
Discussion & Implications
The course was not designed for or specifically
marketed to late-career adults, but many
individuals chose it as their first online
learning experience. While one study found that
25% of teachers in the
United States
are over the age of 50, 38% of participants in
this online course were in that demographic
(Miller, Sen, Malley, & Burns, 2009). This
reaffirms research that older adults prefer highly
specific, short-term learning opportunities based
on their interests and job requirements (Fuller &
Unwin, 2006; Lakin et al., 2008; Shen et al.,
2007; Tallant-Runnels, Thomas, et. al., 2006).
Teacher re-certification requirements and employer
expectations also encouraged participation in this
professional development opportunity. Teachers
must participate in professional development
throughout their teaching career, but they
typically have extensive flexibility in the
professional development options they choose,
including school and district in-services,
workshops, conferences, and coursework (National
Center for Education Statistics, 1999). All course
participants could have met re-certification
requirements without participating in online
training, but it is unlikely that face-to-face
training options would have been as specialized as
that provided in this course. While the teacher
re-certification requirements should be considered
when generalizing the results of this study, it’s
important to note that this online course was
sought out specifically by late-career teachers to
meet these requirements.
These late-career adults used technology for their
work (primarily teaching) at similar levels as
their younger colleagues, but they reported that
they did not feel as skilled in technology use.
This was substantiated by both their self-ratings
of technology skills and use, as well as the
number of technology-related questions posed
during the course. While many of the late-career
adults entered the course concerned about their
technology skills, they were willing to work
through the barriers with the instructor because
they valued the information. This interaction
required higher levels of “invisible” labor by the
instructor (Blair & Hoy, 2006), but it also
produced an online learning community that
extended the learning opportunities within the
course (Grant & Thornton, 2007).
Table 2: Performance and Perception by Age Group
|
|
Participants
Aged 21-35 |
Participants
Aged 36-49 |
Participants
Aged 50-64 |
|
|
|
M |
SD |
M |
SD |
M |
SD |
p |
|
Number of online courses
|
2.12 |
2.01 |
1.28 |
1.85 |
1.12 |
1.79 |
0.05 |
|
Technology use in daily work |
3.48 |
0.51 |
3.50 |
0.51 |
3.36 |
0.53 |
0.37 |
|
Technology skills
|
2.52 |
0.51 |
2.20 |
0.69 |
2.20 |
0.49 |
0.03 |
|
Subject-area competency
|
2.53 |
0.39 |
2.55 |
0.42 |
2.50 |
0.30 |
0.83 |
|
Satisfaction – Case-based learning experience
kept my attention |
3.97 |
0.73 |
4.30 |
0.61 |
4.28 |
0.57 |
0.05 |
|
Satisfaction – Case-based learning experience
could be an important resource in the future |
4.45 |
0.83 |
4.80 |
0.41 |
4.84 |
0.37 |
0.01 |
|
Number of technology-related questions |
0.17 |
0.45 |
0.49 |
0.84 |
0.88 |
1.51 |
0.01 |
It is interesting to note that late-career adults
gave higher satisfaction scores to some components
of the course, specifically the case-based
learning experience that required participants to
read research-based content and then apply the
information to case study examples. Hypotheses for
these higher ratings could be that digital
immigrants have a high appreciation for content
that is directly applicable to their jobs or that
digital natives expect more active interfaces
(i.e., game-like atmospheres) in online
environments (Zemke, Raines & Filipczak, 2001). In
addition, the case-base learning followed a
standardized format with a balance of content and
application. This “learning-while-applying”
approach has been found to be effective for
late-career learners (Charness, Czaja, & Sharit,
2007, pp. 233).
Additional research is needed on the perceptions
and performance of late-career adults in online
learning environments. Because these individuals
prefer highly specialized courses, additional data
need to be collected by institutes of higher
education on their continuing education course
participants. Older adults are continuing to grow
as a market niche in education, so to maintain a
competitive edge, institutes must identify the
needs, interests, and necessary online supports of
this age group.
Institutions of higher education should reflect on
their online course content and delivery systems.
The course in this study was unique in that it was
completed over a four-week duration. Additionally,
it was content-specific with direct application to
the job requirements of the participants. This
level of specificity and application was found to
be highly valued by late-career adults. As
institutions of higher education expand their
online course offerings, they should undergo a
rigorous evaluation process addressing the
context, interactions, and desired outcomes for
students (Preece et al., 2002; Ruhe & Zumbo, 2009;
Scanlon, Jones, Barnard, Thompson, & Calder,
2000). Foresight in course design can then lead to
higher levels of learning for individuals of all
ages.
Finally, the “invisible” labor of faculty teaching
online courses must be understood and valued. When
the instructor of the course in this study was
asked about instructional time, she responded:
Even after teaching this course seven times, it
still requires more of my time than any
face-to-face course I teach. In addition to
updating assignments and grading, I access the
course at least five days per week to respond in
weekly discussions and to answer questions from
students. Once students understand the course
layout and technology requirements, my
instructional time decreases substantially in the
four courses that follow Introduction to
Transition Education & Services.
This is aligned with research that identifies
student-staff contact and prompt feedback as core
principles in effective online teaching (Grant &
Thornton, 2007; Stein & Glazer, 2003). Many
students, especially late-career students, could
benefit from an introductory course that exposes
them to the online learning environment and
subject-area content prior to participating in
advanced online courses.
